Musonius Rufus, Lectures 8.7

It is also the prerogative of kings (if they enjoy any whatever) to be invincible in reason and to be able to prevail over disputants by their arguments, just as over their enemies by their arms. Thus when kings are weak in this, it stands to reason that often they are misled and forced to accept the false as the true, which is the price of folly and dense ignorance.

Now philosophy by its nature confers upon its devotees perhaps more than anything else the ability to remain superior to others in debate, to distinguish the false from the true, and to refute the one and to confirm the other.

Professional speakers, at any rate, whenever they enter into the give and take of argument with philosophers, one can see confused and confounded and obliged to contradict themselves. And yet if such speakers, whose business it is to practice debate, are caught because they are inferior to the philosophers in argument, what is bound to happen to other men?

Therefore if it is the ambition of anyone who is a king to be powerful in debate, he should study philosophy in order that he may not have to fear that anyone will prevail over him in this, for a king should be completely fearless and courageous and invincible.

The human good expresses itself through the virtues, not as rules imposed from without, but as principles springing from within. Every person is called to be just, to be temperate, and to be brave, because every person must learn to have respect for others, to bring order to his passions, and to find the strength to face his fears.

A leader is a person like any other, but he will require these virtues to the highest degree, since he has taken it upon himself to carry others along with him.

Wisdom is the last of the cardinal virtues treated here, even as it must be at the root of all the others. Once again, there can be no doing without an awareness of the doing, no action without the measure of purpose—the what must be preceded by a why.

A leader is still a person like any other, but he will require understanding to the highest degree, since he has taken it upon himself to guide others in forming good judgments.

Any sort of rule, whether it is a dominion over an entire country or just a dominion over one’s own soul, demands the knowledge of true from false, of right from wrong. We may struggle with the grave difficulties, with the seeming ambiguities, with the grueling oppositions, but that is the cornerstone of a good life. It is only a very real and practical engagement with philosophy that can make this possible.

“Yes, I think you’re right. I like my leaders to be smart!”

It doesn’t hurt to be intelligent, quick-witted, or possess a good memory, but I would suggest that wisdom is more than just being clever. Prudence is deeper than these skills, because it involves a deliberate commitment to discerning how ultimate questions of meaning apply to immediate concerns.

A smart man might quickly solve an equation, while a wise man will consider how that can assist us in being happy. If intelligence helps us to come up with solutions, prudence is what sets the goal for the ends we seek.

We will recognize the wise man when he clearly, calmly, and confidently explains his reasoning, from premises to conclusions.

“Sure, our leaders should be able to win in political debates.”

We must be certain what we mean by “winning” here. Most of what we consider debating is sadly about conflict over comprehension, about appearance over reality, about personality over principle.

If victory only means making another look the fool, then we are all fools for buying into such standards. If success only means laughing at the opposition, then the joke’s on us. If coming in first is only determined by an impressive display, then everyone comes in last.

Rhetoric, the art of convincing speech, is a wasted effort when it is divorced from a love of truth. The philosopher can also be eloquent, but he doesn’t play games.

“Right, leaders need to really convince people to follow them.”

By what means should they do so? Will it be enough to depend on the weight of their own authority, or appeal to the emotions of their listeners? What good will those do without the truth of what is actually being said?

“Follow me, because I am a great man, who has done marvelous things!” I’ve seen that path get us into loads of trouble.

“Follow me, because you know in your hearts that this great country can once again live up to the noble legacy of our forefathers!” Lots of cheering follows, without terribly much thinking.

“Follow love over greed, because no man ever found happiness divided from his neighbors.” That could be a beginning; those could be the words of a philosopher, and of a wise king.

Written in 9/1999

IMAGE: Gustave Doré, Solomon in Old Age (1866)